Linguistics is methodology of all possible human inquiry for meaning and meaningful experience.

Linguistics is a huge conceptual railway station, giving direction to all developing areas of all human and maybe (or sure) superhuman science on the planet Earth.

QUOTES

Q-01.

AL (applied linguistics) has been called a problem-based activity. (Corder, S.P., 1973: 138)

Q-02.

AL is grounded in real-world, language driven problems and issues.
(Grabe, W. 2002: 11-12).

Q-03.

‘A working definition of applied linguistics will then be: the theoretical and empirical investigation of real-world problems in which language is a central issue.’ (Brumfit, 1997: 93 )

Q-04.

"Applied linguistics is often said to be concerned with solving or at least ameliorating
social problems involving language. The problems applied linguistics concerns itself with
are likely to be:

1. How can we teach languages better?
2. How can we improve the training of translators and interpreters? How can we write a valid language examination?
3. How can we evaluate a school bilingual program?
4. How can we determine the literacy levels of a whole population?
5. How can we helpfully discuss the language of a text?
6. What advice can we offer a Ministry of Education on a proposal to introduce a new medium of instruction?
7. How can we compare the acquisition of a European and an Asian language?
8. What advice should we give a defense lawyer on the authenticity of a police transcript of an interview with a suspect?" (Davies & Elder, 2004, p. 1).

Reference

Davies, A., & Elder, C. (Ed.). (2004). The handbook of applied linguistics. Oxford, England: Blackwell.

Q-05.

"Linguistic theory and description cannot . . . be deployed directly to solve the problems
with which applied linguistics is concerned. One important reason is the nature of the
problems themselves. They, too, like models of linguistics, represent certain perspectives
on reality. Applied linguistics is not simply a matter of matching up findings  about
language with pre-existing problems but of using findings to explore how the perception
of problems might be changed. It may be that when problems are reformulated from a
different point of view they become more amenable to solution. This changed perception
may then, in turn, have implications for linguistics." (Cook, 2003, p. 10).

Reference

Cook, G. (2003). Applied linguistics. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press.

"

Q-06.

"In the United States, applied linguistics (also) began narrowly as the application of insights from structural linguistics—first to the teaching of English in schools and subsequently to second and foreign language teaching. The linguistics applied approach to language teaching was promulgated most strenuously by Leonard Bloomfield, who developed the foundation for the Army Specialized Training Program, and by Charles C. Fries, who established the English Language Institute (ELI) at the University of Michigan in 1941. In 1946, Applied linguistics became a recognized field of studies in the aforementioned university.In 1948, the Research Club at Michigan established Language Learning: A Journal of Applied Linguistics, the first journal to bear the term applied linguistics. In the late 1960s, applied linguistics began to establish its own identity as an interdisciplinary field of linguistics concerned with real-world language issues. The new identity was solidified by the creation of the American Association for Applied Linguistics in 1977."

Linguists are Information Architects!

IA is a natural fit for linguists, and here’s why!

I’m a linguist by training, and one of the things that drew me to User Experience (UX) and Information Architecture (IA) is the overlap between what linguists do on a day-to-day basis and what UX/IA professionals do.

https://blog.prototypr.io/linguists-are-information-architects-75b04704fd3c

Цитаты и определения

RU 01.

"Термин «прикладная лингвистика» многозначен. В российской и за­падной лингвистике он имеет совершенно разные интерпретации. В за­падной лингвистике (applied linguistics, angewandte Linguistik) он связыва­ется прежде всего с преподаванием иностранных языков, включая методи­ку преподавания, особенности описания грамматики для учебных целей, преподавание языка как родного и иностранного и пр.)"

 RU 02.

"ПРИКЛАДНАЯ ЛИНГВИСТИКА - деятельность по приложению научных знаний об устройстве и функционировании языка в нелингвистических научных дисциплинах и в различных сферах практической деятельности человека, а также теоретическое осмысление такой деятельности." 

/ Энциклопедия Кругосвет /

RU 03.

Прикладное языкознание

"Прикладное  языкознание – это  применение  лингвистических  знаний  к практической  деятельности:  создание  и  усовершенствование  письма,  дешифровка,  обучение  письму,  чтению,  создание  систем  автоматического  перевода, автоматического поиска и реферирования информации, создание систем, обеспечивающих общение человека с машиной на естественном языке.

В круг основных задач прикладной лингвистики входят также: перевод на другой язык, обучение  иностранному  языку,  создание  искусственных языков,  составление словарей (практическая лексикография), упорядочение и стандартизация научно-технической терминологии, организация библиографической информации. 

Термин «прикладная лингвистика» включает в себя компьютерную и математическую лингвистику, лингводидактику (и компьютерное обучение языку) и другие науки. 

В наше время внедрения новых информационных технологий во все сферы человеческого общения прикладная лингвистика развивается по направлению автоматизации основных задач, а именно: 

 Машинный перевод + машинные словари. 

 Компьютерная лингводидактика (CALL – Computer Assisted Language Learning). 

 Компьютерная лингвистика (все приложения лингвистики в компьютерных средах). 

  Математическая  лингвистика (разработка  формальных  моделей  язы-

ков).  

  Автоматическая  обработка  естественных  языков:  распознавание  и 

синтез  речи,  автоматизация  информационных  работ,  автоматические 

системы информационного поиска. 

  Квантитативная лингвистика (частотный анализ текстов)."

Шарафутдинова, Н.С. Теория и история лингвистической науки: Учебное пособие / Н.С. Шарафутдинова. – Ульяновск: УлГТУ, 2006. - С. 6-7.

RU 04.

"Нетрудно догадаться, что в нормальной ситуации теоретическая и прикладная области в совокупности и составляют науку. Так, теоретическая и прикладная физика - это просто физика, теоретическая и прикладная химия - это просто химия и так далее. Для лингвистов - эти "лишние" слова нужны, чтобы размежеваться с "новой лингвистикой", в прошлом - изучением иностранных языков. Другое дело, что и такое размежевание проходит недостаточно строго, потому что преподавание иностранных языков вполне может быть отнесено к прикладной лингвистике. На самом деле, это не что иное, как одно из направлений прикладной лингвистики."

Максим Кронгауз

Украли слово!  LINK

  (17 Января 2003)

"Linguistics may be defined as the scientific study of language. 

... For the moment, it will be enough to say that by the scientific study of language is meant its investigation by means of controlled and empirically verifiable observations and with reference to some general theory of language-structure."

[Lyons, 1968, p.1].

  Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge,Cambridge University Press 1968.

"For the Greeks * grammar' was from the first a part of philosophy'. That is to say, it was a part of their general inquiry into the nature of the world around them and of their own social institutions."

 [Lyons, 1968, p.4].

  Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge,Cambridge University Press 1968.

"The Indian classification of speech sounds was more detailed, more accurate and more soundly based upon observation and experiment than anything achieved in Europe (or elsewhere as far as we know) before the late nineteenth century, when the science of phonetics in Europe was in fact strongly influenced by the discovery and translation of the Indian linguistic treatises by Western scholars."

[Lyons, 1968, p.20].

  Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge,Cambridge University Press 1968.

https://linguistics.ucla.edu/people/keating/IPA/inter_chart_2018/IPA_2018.html

"Comparative linguistics (as a branch of general linguistics) is an explanatory science. It sets out to explain the evident fact that languages change and that different languages are related to one another in different degrees." 

[Lyons, 1968, 1.4.1., p.33].

  Lyons, John. Introduction to Theoretical Linguistics. Cambridge,Cambridge University Press 1968.

'Grimm's law' 

'Verner's law' 

Phonetics

"Most languages are transmitted by sounds and one of the most obvious differences between languages is that they sound different. The study of the sounds that human beings make in their languages is known as phonetics."

(The Handbook ofApplied Linguistics, 2004, p.26).

 The Handbook ofApplied Linguistics / Edited by Alan Davies and Catherine Elder © 2004 by Blackwell Publishing Ltd.

Orthoepy

the OED (Oxford English Dictionary) recognizes the variants /ˈɔːθəʊˌiːpi/, /ˈɔːθəʊˌɛpi/, /ˈɔːθəʊɨpi/, and /ɔːˈθəʊɨpi/ for British English, as well as /ɔrˈθoʊəpi/ for American English.

Sandhi (/ˈsʌndi, ˈsæn-, ˈsɑːn-/; Sanskrit: संधि saṃdhí [sən̪d̪ʱi], "joining") is a cover term for a wide variety of sound changes that occur at morpheme or word boundaries. Examples include fusion of sounds across word boundaries and the alteration of one sound depending on nearby sounds or the grammatical function of the adjacent words. Sandhi belongs to morphophonology.

Syntactic Typological systems

Subject–verb–object positioning

Main article: Word order

One set of types reflects the basic order of subject, verb, and direct object in sentences:

Object–subject–verb

Object–verb–subject

Subject–verb–object

Subject–object–verb

Verb–subject–object

Verb–object–subject

 «We learn to read the world in terms of the codes and conventions which are dominant within the specific socio-cultural contexts and roles within which we are socialized. In the process of adopting a 'way of seeing' (to use John Berger's phrase), we also adopt an 'identity'.»

See: ‘Semiotics for Beginners’ by Daniel Chandler. LINK

Culture

"The behaviours and beliefs of a community of people whose history, geography, institutions and commonalities are distinct and distinguish them, to a greater or lesser degree, from all other groups. An individual can simultaneously be associated with a range of such communities given different aspects of commonality, based on age, interests or place of residence. An important element of a people’s way of life is their means of communicating amongst themselves."

524/ FSL Guide to Implementation — Grade 7 to Grade 9 (Nine-year)  © Alberta Education, Canada, 2008 

Cultural competency  

"The development of knowledge and understanding that allows students to reflect upon other cultures, with a view to understanding other people and developing their own personalities and identities in preparation for global citizenship."

FSL Guide to Implementation — Grade 7 to Grade 9 (Nine-year)  © Alberta Education, Canada, 2008  Appendix Y /525 

commonality [ˌkɔmə'nælətɪ] "общность" Syn: community , commonness

Realia 

Tangible artifacts from the target culture, including posters, images, flags, maps, product packaging, bus ticket stubs, brochures, shopping bags, etc. 

These can be used to provide a classroom environment rich in language and cultural stimuli as well as material for use with many activities and tasks. 

Slavonic [slə'vɔnɪk] = Slavic

Slavonic [slə'vɒnɪk] славянский

Slavonic languages — славянские языки

old/church Slavonic — как старославянский/церковно-славянский язык.

Slavic ['slɑːvɪk ], ['slæ-] славянский;

Slavic studies — славистика.

Germanic [ʤɜː'mænɪk]; [ʤɜː(r)mæ̱nɪk]

1. Ger·man·ic 1) of, relating to, or denoting the branch of the Indo-European language family that includes English, German, Dutch, Frisian, the Scandinavian languages, and Gothic ■ of, relating to, or denoting the peoples of ancient northern and western Europe speaking such languages

2) having characteristics of or attributed to Germans or Germany she had an almost Germanic regard for order 2. Ger·man·ic the Germanic languages collectively. See also East Germanic , North Germanic , West Germanic ■ the unrecorded ancient language from which these developed, thought to have been spoken on the shores of the Baltic Sea in the 3rd millennium BC. Also called Proto-Germanic Origin: mid 17th cent.: from Latin Germanicus, from Germanus (see German).

East Germanic is the extinct eastern group of Germanic languages, including Gothic.

North Germanic North Germanic the northern branch of the Germanic languages, descended from Old Norse and comprising Danish, Norwegian, Swedish, Icelandic, and Faroese. 

Faroese [ˌfeərəu'iːz] = Faeroese;

of or relating to the Faroe Islands or their people or language;

the official language of the Faroes, a North Germanic language closely related to Icelandic.

West Germanic is a subbranch of the Germanic languages that consists of English, Frisian, Dutch, Flemish, Afrikaans, Low German, German, Yiddish, and their associated dialects. 

Charlize Theron Speaks Afrikaans

"If a particular language divides the colour spectrum in three (instead of two,

as with the Dani), the third colour term, after ‘black’ and ‘white’ will always

be ‘red’, because that colour is always best recognised and perceived most

quickly." (, p. 357).

Linguistics (Edited by Anne E. Baker & Kees Hengeveld. - 2012 Blackwell Publishing Ltd

Dani is a language of Irian Jaya (Indonesian New Guinea), which indeed only has words for DARK and LIGHT.

English:          red, yellow;       blue, green, black.

Language X:  colour 1             colour 2

 In  a  narrow  sense  lexicography  may  be  described as  the  art  and  craft  of  writing  a  dictionary.  

For instance, the English word cousin corresponds to eight different words in Chinese:  

1. ta2ngge1 'elder male paternal cousin' 
2. ta2ngdм 'younger male paternal cousin' 
3. ta2ngjie3 'elder female paternal cousin' 
4. ta2ngme4i 'younger female paternal cousin' 
5. bia3oge1 'elder male maternal cousin' 
6. bia3odм 'younger male maternal cousin' 
7. bia3ojie3 'elder female maternal cousin' 
8. bia3ome4i 'younger female maternal cousin' 

Just as English has no word for the eight concepts involved in the Chinese terminology, Chinese has no word for the general concept 'cousin'. 

Pidgins and creoles, which are mixed languages, develop when the status or power of one of the languages and/or its speakers is higher than the other.

Pidgins are developed as the native language of none of the speakers. A creole is the native language of a

group of speakers and develops from a pidgin when children begin to learn the pidgin as their first language and the vocabulary increases. Pidgins andcreoles are also of concern because they can be used to study of the evolution of language.

Pragmatics

David Krystal (1985)

"Pragmatics is the study of language from the point of view of users, especially the choices they make, the constraints they encounter in using language in social interaction and the effect their use of language has on other participants in the act of communication".

William Leap explains: 

'Genders are cultural constructions, and not determined entirely or primarily by bodily form or biological function. Accordingly, studies of gendered experience frequently use text as an entry point for such inquiry, because gender is negotiated and contested through the production and circulation of life stories, personal anecdotes, gossip and other narratives, legal statements, ritual oratory, words of advice and practical caution, jokes, songs, and other forms of expressive 

language, as well as through word borrowings, modifications to existing vocabulary, and new word formations, (p. 402) 

Leap, William (ed.) 1995: Beyond the Lavender Lexicon: Authenticity, Imagination and Appropriation in Lesbian and Gay Languages. New York: Gordon and Breach. 

Strategic competency 

The development and application of a repertoire of techniques to facilitate learning and, specifically, language learning.

“Conversation Analysis

A particular and highly empirical approach to examining the structure of discourse. The term conversation analysis, which came into prominence in the 1970s, sounds straightforward enough, but it is used in two rather different ways.

Some people use it in a very broad sense, to include all possible approaches to the study of conversational structure. Much more commonly, however, the term is used more narrowly to denote a very particular approach to the subject matter: specifically, one which rejects the use of traditional and widely used grammatical concepts and terms, and attempts instead to work out from observation what speakers are doing and how they are doing it, with any required concepts and terms being derived purely from observation. The leading figure in the development of this approach was the American sociologist Harvey Sacks.

The approach is particularly associated with a general approach to social sciences called ethnomethodology, whose proponents argue that the proper object of sociological study is the set of techniques that the members of a society use to interpret their world and to act within it. In practice, this means a minimum of theorizing and a strong emphasis upon raw data and on the patterns that emerge from the data. Consequently, conversation analysis, in this narrow sense, contrasts most obviously with discourse analysis, which operates from the beginning with the familiar concepts and terms of general linguistics and attempts to examine the role of these concepts in discourses, including conversations.” [R.L.Trask, KEY CONCEPTS IN LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 37-38].

“Communicative Competence

The ability to use language appropriately in social situations.

In order to speak a language successfully, you need to have purely linguistic competence in that language: mastery of pronunciation, of grammar and of vocabulary. But you need more than that: you also need sociolinguistic competence, knowledge of such things as how to begin and end conversations, how and when to be polite, and how to address people. In addition, you further need strategic competence, knowledge of how to organize a piece of speech in an effective manner and how to spot and compensate for any misunderstandings or other difficulties.

Depending  on  who  is  using  it,  the  term  communicative  competence  refers (more usually) to the last two of these or (less usually) to all three together. The concept and the term were introduced, in the narrower sense, by the American linguist Dell Hymes in the 1970s. Hymes was dismayed by what he saw as the excessively narrow concern of many linguists with nothing but internal linguistic structure, at the expense of communication, and he wished to draw attention tothe importance of appropriateness of language use.

Today linguists of a theoretical orientation still prefer to focus on the purely structural  aspects  of  language,  but  those  with  an  interest  in anthropological linguistics, in functionalism, in language in use, in language teaching, or in communication generally typically attach great importance to the examination and elucidation of communicative competence.

.” [R.L.Trask, KEY CONCEPTS IN LANGUAGE AND LINGUISTICS 28].

Вайсгербер Йохан Лео. Родной язык и формирование духа /Пер. с нем, вступ. ст. и комменти. О.А. Радченко. Изд. 2-е, испр. и доп.. - М.: Едиториал УРСС, 2004. - 232 с.  (История лингвофилософской мысли) ISBN 5-354-00843-3